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An Independent Country, Late 20th Century

Lyndon B. Johnson Leads the Country after Kennedy’s Death

August 22, 2017 americanadmin Leave a comment

Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson became president after President John F. Kennedy was assassinated. Johnson was in Dallas with Kennedy when he was shot. He boarded Air Force One with Mrs. Kennedy and took the presidential oath of office right there on the plane. Mrs. Kennedy was still wearing her blood-stained suit. Johnson’s voice trembled as he repeated the oath. He knew the American people were scared and he knew he had a big job to do. As president, he continued many of Kennedy’s plans and added some of his own.

Fun Facts

Lyndon B. Johnson grew up in rural Texas. His family was poor. He became a school teacher and congressman before he became president.
Johnson read a book called The Other America by Michael Harrington, which described the lives of poor people living in America. Johnson was inspired to try to help these people.
He declared a War on Poverty and passed the Economic Opportunity Act of 1964, which offered job training, service opportunities, and a domestic Peace Corps. The Office of Economic Opportunity had a $1 billion budget and was aimed at stopping poverty.
Johnson, along with his wife, “Lady Bird” Johnson, launched Head Start, a preschool program designed to prepare children for kindergarten.
In 1964, Johnson ran for presidential office again. He envisioned a “Great Society” that would end “poverty and racial injustice” and create “abundance and liberty for all.” He easily defeated Republican candidate, Barry Goldwater.
Not everyone agreed with Johnson’s huge reforms. Conservatives were concerned that his programs created a big federal government. They wondered who would pay for his expensive programs. They also worried that the programs would ultimately be ineffective.

Vocabulary

Domestic: at home or in one’s own country
Envision: to see, plan, or have a vision
Abundance: plenty

Questions and Answers

Question: Did Lyndon B. Johnson’s plans work?

Answer: Johnson had a rugged confidence that restored the American people’s faith in government after Kennedy’s death. His programs have had mixed results. They probably have helped some people, but poverty continues to be a problem in the U.S. His programs paved the way for bigger federal government – and a bigger federal budget and deficit. The Warren Court, the Supreme Court during the 1960s, made several rulings that changed life in America. For example, one case outlawed prayer in public schools.

Learn More

Visit Scholastic to learn more about Lyndon B. Johnson.

An Independent Country, Mid-20th Century

Communism in Asia and Elsewhere

March 29, 2017 americanadmin Leave a comment

The Soviet Union wasn’t the only country promoting communism. Since the late 1920s, Communist leader Mao Tse-tung had been trying to gain control of China from the Nationalist government led by Chiang Kai-shek. The two sides formed a truce during World War II to fight against the Japanese, but as soon as the war ended, their fighting began again. In 1949, the Communists gained control of China and their doctrine began to spread through Asia.

Fun Facts

After Mao Tse-tung gained power, Nationalist leaders and fighters fled to Formosa, which was renamed Taiwan.
Japan controlled Korea during World War II. When the war ended, the Russians were assigned the northern part of the country, while the U.S. was given control of the southern part. The plan was to allow a national election and slowly help Korea build its own government. But Russia, now the Soviet Union, refused to allow a national election. The country split into two countries, North and South Korea. North Korea became a Communist country. South Korea was protected by the United Nations and American forces as it became a democracy.
The Korean War began on June 25, 1950, when Communist North Korean troops stormed over the 38th parallel border, which marked the boundary between North and South Korea. President Truman immediately ordered General Douglas MacArthur to lead American and UN troops against the North Korean threat. Troops from 16 countries pushed the North Koreans back, regaining not only South Korea, but most of North Korea.
On November 26, 1950, thousands of Communist Chinese troops came to fight against the U.S. troops, forcing them back. Truman realized that the war might expand to include not only Chinese troops, but Soviet troops, as well. He understood well the horrors of war, especially the damage a nuclear war might cause. Instead, he decided to work for a truce.
Truman did not run for reelection. His successor, Dwight Eisenhower, went to Korea to negotiate a truce. The Korean War ended on July 27, 1953. Fifty-four thousand American soldiers had been killed in preventing the spread of Communism. An inscription on the Korean War Memorial in Washington, D.C. reads, “Our nation honors her sons and daughters who answered the call to defend a country they never knew and a people they never met.”
Vietnam, which was a French Colony until 1945, came under the control of Communist leader Ho Chi Minh. At an international conference, the country was divided into North and South Vietnam. The United States sent financial aid and military personnel to South Vietnam in the hopes of preventing Communist North Vietnam from invading it.
Fidel Castro successfully led a revolution in Cuba, overthrowing years of dictatorship. Soon after, he created a Communist dictatorship there with strong connections to the Soviet Union. Cuba is only 90 miles off the coast of Florida. American leaders were very concerned that the U.S. might be a target for a Communist takeover.

Vocabulary

Communism: a political and social philosophy in which the state holds all property and gives it to the people to use. Religion, free speech, open elections, and many other liberties are outlawed.
Truce: an agreement to end fighting; neither party is declared the victor.

Questions and Answers

Question: Does Communism still exist today?

Answer: By the 1980s, Communism had spread over much of Asia, Eastern Europe and parts of Africa and Central America. Today Communism lives on in a few parts of Asia and Europe. However, many of the reasons that Communism became popular in the first place – class systems and inequality – do continue.

An Independent Country, Mid-20th Century

The Cold War

March 29, 2017 americanadmin Leave a comment

During World War II, the Soviet Union allied with Britain, France, and the U.S. After the war, though, that relationship soured. Communist leader, Joseph Stalin refused to remove troops from European countries previously occupied by the Germans. Instead, he took over those countries, establishing Communist governments in Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Poland, and Romania. Winston Churchill warned that Stalin was placing an “Iron Curtain” over Europe. Elsewhere in Asia, Communism was spreading as well.

Fun Facts

Joseph Stalin ruled the Eastern Block, as these countries were known, as a dictator. He allowed no free elections and political rivals were often intimidated or even murdered.
The invention of the atomic bomb and nuclear weapons made war a much more dangerous prospect. Whole cities could be destroyed within minutes. The Cold War was not a military war, but a war of ideas. Communist and Allied leaders distrusted each other and citizens lived with the constant fear that the other side would use nuclear weapons.
Americans were prepared for the possibility of a nuclear attack. Public buildings and even private homes included fallout shelters – steel or concrete structures that contained food, water, and medical supplies. Children were trained at school about what to do if a nuclear attack happened.
As the Soviet Union began seeking power over Turkey and Greece, President Truman created a policy called “The Truman Doctrine,” which said that America had an obligation to “support free people who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures.”
Americans feared that Communist leaders and spies were infiltrating their country. In 1947, President Truman created the Loyalty Review Board. This board investigated 3 million government employees and fired 212 people who were considered potential security risks.
Julius and Ethel Rosenberg were charged of espionage – of giving atomic bomb secrets to the Russians. They were convicted and executed in 1953. Historians still wonder whether they were really guilty.
Wisconsin senator, Joseph McCarthy claimed he had the names of 205 communists working for the U.S. government, sparking a period of fear and hysteria known as the McCarthy Era. He accused many people, including writers, actors, movie producers, military leaders, and even President Truman, of being Communists. He used verbal attacks and bullying to intimidate people. Anyone who spoke out against him faced being named as a communist.
Finally, in 1953, during a public hearing of high-ranking army leaders, quiet, mild-mannered attorney, Joseph Welch had had enough of McCarthy’s rude behavior. He said, “Have you no sense of decency, sir? At long last, have you left no sense of decency?”
Welch’s simple question seemed to break the spell. Everyone in the courtroom began clapping. After that, McCarthy’s reputation declined and in 1954, the Senate condemned his behavior as dishonorable.

Vocabulary

Subjugation: to overpower or oppress
Infiltrate: to gradually gain access or permeate

Questions and Answers

Question: Why did Communism scare American leaders so much?

Answer: In Communist countries, the government controls all property. People are assigned work, based on their skills; they are given food, clothing, shelter, and other items based on their need. Religion of any kind is not allowed, nor is the media allowed to speak freely. These practices go against the ideals of democracy and freedom – that men can think for themselves, elect leaders to govern them, and choose where and how to work and live.

Learn More

Visit the Library of Congress to learn more about the Cold War.

An Independent Country, Mid-20th Century

The Candy Bomber

March 28, 2017 americanadmin Leave a comment

During and after World War II, many people tried to ease the suffering of others, sometimes at the risk of their own lives. One such person was Gail Halvorsen. Born in Salt Lake City, Utah and raised on small farms in Utah and Idaho, Halvorsen became a pilot during World War II. Following the war, he flew supplies to the city of West Berlin, which was occupied by the Soviet Union. He became a hero to German children when he started dropping candy from his planes to them.

Fun Facts

After World War II, Germany was divided among the British, French, and Americans (allies) and the Soviet Union. The Soviets weren’t happy about the Allied involvement in Germany. They blocked West Berlin so that no supplies could come in or out. They hoped that the Allies would then leave.
Over 2 million German citizens were left without food, fuel, or basic supplies in a country already devastated by war. People worried that many Germans would die or the conflict would start a third world war.
President Truman ordered millions of pounds of food and supplies to be flown into Germany – over 1,500 tons of food were needed every day to feed the people of West Berlin. Hungry Germans were grateful to have simple supplies such as flour. They cut down trees for food and searched through garbage cans for food. They experienced great hardship, but they refused to submit to Soviet control.
Gail Halvorsen was one of the pilots who flew supplies into West Berlin during this time. He was impressed by how strong the German people and children were. One day, he was talking to a group of children while he waited to fly his plane. They said, “When the weather gets too bad to fly, don’t worry about us. We can go without food, but we can’t go without freedom. Just don’t give up on us.”
Halvorsen divided two pieces of gum in his pocket and gave it to the children. Their happiness and gratitude inspired him to do more. He told them to watch for him the next day. He would wiggle his plane wings as he flew overhead and then drop chocolates and gum in handkerchief parachutes.
Over the next few weeks, Halvorsen and his co-pilots dropped more parachutes filled with candy to the German children. When their commander discovered their antics, he was angry at first. When he realized the good they were doing, he said, “Keep at it.”
Hundreds of letters poured in from children all over Germany. Halvorsen later met an older man who had been a child during that time and had received one of the parachutes. The man said, “I kept that Hershey chocolate bar for a week and hid it. But the chocolate was not the important thing. The important thing was that someone in America knew I was in trouble and cared. And that meant hope.”

Questions and Answers

Question: Did other people help during and after the war?

Answer: Many people quietly tried to offer hope and encouragement. If you liked this story, you might like the book, Boxes for Katje.This picture book tells the true story of a little girl in Indiana who sent boxes of soap, socks, and chocolate to the people of Olste, Holland after the war.

Learn More

Visit Wiggly Wings to read more about the Berlin Candy Bomber. Or, here to watch a PBS movie about him.

An Independent Country, Mid-20th Century

The Aftermath of World War II

March 28, 2017 americanadmin Leave a comment

As World War II ended, Americans looked forward to resuming their lives. For millions of people in Europe and Asia, though, life would never be the same. Over 55 million people worldwide had been killed (400,000 Americans) and millions were separated from their families or left homeless. Cities throughout Europe and Japan had been destroyed.

Fun Facts

The United States government set up temporary housing sent food, supplies, and funds to Europe to ease the suffering of refugees there. Additionally, individuals, churches, and community groups also sent supplies and money.
The United Nations was founded in April 1945, two weeks after President Roosevelt’s death. Roosevelt believed that the only way to assure lasting peace would be through the establishment of an international organization comprised of countries dedicated to maintaining world peace and security. Eleanor Roosevelt, FDR’s wife, worked as a delegate to the United Nations. She is credited for crafting the UN Declaration of Human Rights.
Shortly after the war ended, 22 Na-zi leaders were brought before an international court. During the Nuremberg Trial, concentration camp survivors testified of their brutality. Nineteen leaders were convicted of crimes against humanity. Twelve were committed to death, including top leader, Hermann Goering, who committed suicide on the night before his scheduled execution.
As people learned about the atrocities committed by the Germans, they became sympathetic to European Jews. Many Jews immigrated to the United States. Others wanted to create a Jewish homeland in Palestine. Palestine lies along the Mediterranean Sea and was the Biblical home of the Jews. It is also a sacred site for Muslim and Christian faiths.
In 1947, the UN proposed that Palestine be divided into two distinct areas with separate governments: an Arab (Muslim) state and an Israeli (Jewish) state. Jews living in the region readily accepted the UN’s proposal and formed the state of Israel on May 14, 1948. Palestinian Arabs weren’t so happy. They rejected the UN decision and deployed troops to destroy Israel. During the first Arab-Israeli War, more than 500,000 Arabs fled Palestine. Arab countries refuse to recognize Israel and conflict continues even today.

Vocabulary

Comprise: to make up of or consist of
Maintain: to keep or continue
Delegate: someone sent to represent others
Atrocity: a horror

Questions and Answers

Question: What happened to the Japanese-Americans who were sent to military camps during World War II?

Answer: Beginning in 1942, some 110,000 Japanese-Americans were taken from their homes, businesses, and farms and sent to internment camps. Some were sent to Japan. In 1944, a Supreme Court ruling made it illegal to send Japanese-American citizens to a camp without a probable cause. After this ruling, people slowly started leaving the camps and rebuilding their lives. In 1946, the camps were closed. Imagine how hard it must have been! People had lost their homes, their businesses, their belongings, and their friends. Adults had to find new jobs; children adjusted to new schools and friends.

Learn More

Visit the Atlantic to see photos of Japanese-Americans during and after World War II.

An Independent Country, Early 20th Century

Social Unrest after World War I

January 25, 2017 americanadmin Leave a comment

After World War I, America went through a great shift in moral and social values. Before the war, most people believed in traditional values of hard work, family, and religion. After the war, many people felt suspicious and afraid. They disagreed on what should happen in America.

Schools adopted new progressive educational practices. Teachers were instructed to let children learn through hands-on methods. Children were taught by looking at and memorizing words, rather than through phonics instruction. Tests were used to measure performance. Most schools still use these techniques.
People distrusted others who were different than them. The Klu Klux Klan dressed in white robes and hoods, holding parades and demonstrating against Catholics, Jews, foreigners, African-Americans, and radicals. They controlled the politics of many small towns and sometimes terrorized others.
New political ideas emerged, such as Communism. People worried that a Communist revolution might happen in the U.S. Radicals sent bombs in the mail to prominent U.S. citizens and politicians. No one was killed and the post office found most of the bombs, but Americans were frightened.
Women began wearing short skirts, cutting their hair, and wearing makeup. These women, known as flappers, were part of a young crowd that wanted to have fun. They enjoyed going to dances, drinking, and living a life with few rules. Moving pictures and radio offered entertainment. Crossword puzzles, beauty pageants, and dance marathons became fads.
Others longed for a return to traditional values. Prohibition was a law that made it illegal to make, sell, or buy alcohol. It didn’t work very well. People went to hidden bars and clubs (speakeasies) to get alcohol.

Vocabulary

Phonics: the system of learning to read based on the sounds of the alphabet
Radical: someone with extreme political views
Communism: a form of government found at the time in Russia and China. In Communism, all forms of religion are generally prohibited. The government owns all property and citizens are given work assignments.

Questions and Answers

Question: How did this time change America?

Answer: For the first time, American culture was driven by media. Radio, moving pictures, and easy access to magazines and newspapers influenced people’s ideas. Many people felt rebellious and cynical. Family life seemed less important. This shift in values had a profound effect on America. Do you think it was positive?

Learn More

Visit Scholastic to learn more about Communism.

An Independent Country, Early 20th Century

The American Economy after World War I

January 25, 2017 americanadmin Leave a comment

Immediately after World War I, America went through an economic downturn but quickly recovered. In fact, Americans had never had so much money or so much free time. New advances in technology meant that products could be made more quickly and cheaply than ever before. In 1927, the U.S. dollar was worth one-third more than it had been worth in 1914.

Fun Facts

Working class families could now afford to buy vacuums, furniture, and other household goods.
People began wanting and expecting more. Henry Ford introduced the idea of credit – a person could make a small down payment for a car and make payments each month until the car was paid for. Soon, people were using credit to buy furniture, appliances, and houses. This system allowed people to buy more things that they could if they paid in cash.
Women had gone to work during the war. Many of them went back to being homemakers, but about 25 percent remained in the workforce.
People felt optimistic that the good times would last forever, but by the late 1920s, problems in the economy began to appear. Few people paid attention to the warning signs.
Not everyone enjoyed the new prosperity. As land prices increased and food prices decreased, farmers struggled. Many of them had purchased farm machinery on credit, but couldn’t pay off their debts. Over 13 million acres of farmland were left vacant as farmers moved to cities to find work.
Advertisers began aggressively selling products and people kept spending money. More and more Americans carried debt. This debt made it difficult for them to save money. If something happened, such as a health problem or a job loss, they would be in serious trouble.
People began investing in the stock market, sometimes buying “on margin,” which was like taking a loan from a stockbroker to buy a stock.

Vocabulary

Vacant: empty
Stockbroker: someone who buys and sells stocks on behalf of a client
Debt: money that is owed to someone else

Questions and Answers

Question: What would happen if people had bought everything they needed?

Answer: That’s exactly what did happen. Americans had purchased all the furniture, appliances, and home goods they needed, but factories kept on making more items. Soon these items began piling up. Factories weren’t selling goods so they weren’t making money. When they didn’t make money, they couldn’t pay their employees. When the employees were laid off, they couldn’t pay back their debts.

Learn More

Visit Dave Ramsey to learn more about managing money wisely.

An Independent Country, Early 20th Century

World War I’s Aftermath

January 25, 2017 americanadmin Leave a comment

World War I officially ended on November 11, 1918 when allied leaders signed an armistice with the Triple Alliance. The armistice was signed in a railroad car in a forest in France near the front line. “The war to end all wars” was finally over. Over 6.6 million civilians and 8 million soldiers were killed. Much of Europe had been destroyed; Great Britain and France were hit especially hard. But what happened after the war?

Fun Facts

Leaders in Europe and the U.S. hoped to prevent wars in the future. President Wilson wrote a document called the Fourteen Points outlining his ideas for keeping peace. The Germans liked the plan; the French, British, and Republicans here in the U.S. thought it was too lenient on the Germans.
The armistice that ended the war was based on Wilson’s Fourteen Points. It said that only elected governments could sign peace treaties. It also said that people from the same national and cultural background could create their own nation.
It also called for the creation of a world organization, the League of Nations.
During the Treaty of Versailles, President Wilson met with European leaders to hammer out an agreement based on the Fourteen Points. The French and the British agreed with some of the points but disagreed with others. Ultimately, a compromise was reached.
Wilson had hoped for lenient treatment of Germany, but the country lost one-eighth of its land and all its colonies. Allied troops remained in Germany and the country was required to pay for the damage caused by the war.
Before the war, much of Europe was part of four huge empires – the German, Russian, Ottoman, and Austro-Hungarian empires. After the war, new countries were formed based on the national identities of the people that lived in those areas. The new countries included Finland, Latvia, Poland, Estonia, Lithuania, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Austria, and Yugoslavia.
In the United States, people were unenthused about the Treaty of Versailles. In particular, they worried that participation in the League of Nations might lead to Americans being involved in more wars. President Wilson pushed hard for America to join the league, but the Senate voted no.

Vocabulary

Armistice: an agreement between two warring parties to stop fighting temporarily
Lenient: lax; not strict
Civilian: non-military person

Questions and Answers

Question: Did the American public support President Wilson’s plan?

Answer: In general, no. Many political leaders were against America joining the League of Nations so President Wilson tried to drum up support with the American people. He visited 29 cities in 22 days talking with people about his plan. In Colorado, the president became ill and later suffered a stroke that left him partially paralyzed.

Learn More

Visit the BBC to learn much more about World War 1.

An Independent Country, Mid-20th Century

World War II: Victory in the Pacific

January 25, 2017 americanadmin Leave a comment

Victory in the Pacific Islands proved difficult. The Japanese were fierce, unrelenting fighters. Japanese Kamikaze pilots flew “suicide planes” loaded with explosives into American ships. The remote islands were hard to reach and once there, hard to get through because of the dense jungle. The Allies were forced to make a devastating decision.

Fun Facts

Shortly after the attack on Pearl Harbor, Japanese forces invaded American naval and air bases in the Pacific, as well as the Philippines. The American and Filipino troops, serving under General Douglas MacArthur, fled to the Bataan Peninsula. After the Island of Corregidor was conquered by the Japanese, these troops were forced to walk 70 miles to Japanese prison camps. Hundreds of Americans died during the Bataan Death March.
In the spring of 1942, American warplanes engaged in fierce battles against the Japanese and won. The battles of Coral Sea and Midway were a turning point in the Pacific war.
In Japan, Allied troops were slowly making progress, taking one island after another. But their victories came with enormous loss of life. Fighting through steamy jungles filled with poisonous snakes and malaria-carrying mosquitoes was much different than invading Europe.
President Roosevelt died in the spring of 1945. Harry S. Truman took his place. Under Roosevelt’s direction, scientists had been working on the first atomic bomb after learning that the Germans were also developing such a device. In July, 1945, Truman met with other Allied leaders. They had a difficult decision to make. They could continue the invasion of Japan and risk losing more Allied soldiers or they could drop an atomic bomb in Japan, which they knew would kill many Japanese people and cause massive destruction.
On August 6, 1945, the first bomb was dropped on Hiroshima, a city in Japan. Over 80,000 people were killed and those who survived suffered terrible wounds. The Japanese government refused to surrender. Another bomb was dropped on August 9 over Nagasaki, Japan, killing 35,000 people. On August 15, Japan surrendered. World War II was over.

Vocabulary

Kamikaze: one who plans to die in battle
Malaria: a serious disease spread by mosquitoes

Questions and Answers

Question: Was dropping the Atomic bombs on Japan the right choice?

Answer: That’s hard to say. Over 100,000 people were killed and large parts of the cities were flattened. Those that survived often died later from disease. The atomic bomb was truly a horrific invention. It’s possible, though, that as many people might have died if the fighting had continued.

Learn More

Visit the Hiroshima Kids’ Peace Center to learn more about the atomic bomb and what people can do to work for peace.

An Independent Country, Mid-20th Century

World War II: Victory in Europe

January 25, 2017 americanadmin Leave a comment

In the spring of 1944, Churchill and Roosevelt were ready to begin the next step in their plan. The British countryside was filled with army personnel, supplies, and weapons. Under the direction of General Eisenhower, the troops planned to invade and free France before moving onto the rest of Europe. Facing the German army head-on on land would be their biggest challenge.

Fun Facts

Shortly after midnight on June 6, 1944, paratroopers and glider troops landed behind enemy lines in the dark near the coast of France. Their job was to destroy communications so the German army couldn’t alert others.
Bombers and warships attacked the German troops on the French coast. At dawn, Allied ships and landing craft filled the English Channel, while Allied fighter planes overhead shot at German troops. American, British, and Canadian troops ran onto the beach at Normandy and fought a fierce battle against the Germans. Over 2,500 Allied soldiers died on D-Day, which the soldiers named, “the longest day.”
Allied troops moved quickly through Europe, first freeing France and then Brussels and Luxenbourg. They enjoyed success for the most part, but ran into trouble in the Ardennes forest of Belgium. Here, German forces trapped the 101st Airborne Division, among others. Reinforcements finally arrived to free the men who were starving and half-frozen. Over 77,000 Allied troops died here during the Battle of the Bulge.
At the same time, Russian troops pushed from the east and eventually entered Berlin on April 23, 1945. A few days later, it was announced that Hitler had committed suicide. On May 8, 1945, Eisenhower accepted Germany’s surrender. The war was over in Europe. V-E Day was marked by celebrations throughout Europe and America. People danced in the streets.

Vocabulary

Personnel: trained workers
Suicide: to take one’s own life
V-E Day: Victory in Europe day

Questions and Answers

Question: How many people died in World War II?

Answer: Almost 400,000 American soldiers died in the war. Many of these soldiers died in POW (prisoner of war) camps. In total, between 21 and 25 million soldiers died worldwide. But that’s just the beginning. Between 60 and 80 million people died in total. Civilians were killed by disease, famine, and bombs in Europe, China, Russia, and Africa. When Allied forces arrived in Europe, they found nearly 20 German concentration camps. In these camps, bodies were stacked in piles. The Germans had built gas chambers to kill people, along with huge ovens to burn their bodies. Through Hitler’s evil plan, over 6 million Jews were murdered, along with five million others, including those with disabilities.

Learn More

Anne Frank was a young Jewish girl whose family hid during the Na-zi regime. Her family was eventually discovered and she later died, but her diary helps us understand what happened.

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